Hinnebusch - Identity and State Formation in Multi‐sectarian Societies

State formation and identity in MENA are not necessarily co-terminus
- Sect and class are not necessarily orthonognal
Claims that the westphalian state was unnaturally applied to MENA
3 levels of identity
- Supra-state
  - Islam, Ummah, Pan-Arabism, etc
- State level
  - Nationalism, secularism, etc
- Sub-state
  - Sectarian, tribal, etc
Hybrid states with multiple identities can exist for a surprisingly long time
In the long run, strong, inclusive states and national identities work in tandem, alongside weak states and sectarianism. But the curve is not linear and has multiple permutations.

Case of Syria

Intial state formation: 1946-1963
- Largely weak oligarchic weak states, but somewhat inclusive, subsumbed state identities
- Embraced pan-Arabism
- Largely similar lingustic background (Anderson - Imagined Communities) allowed state formation
Ba’thist state building and identity: 1963-2000
- Embraced distintly nationalist identities against Israel
- Also embraced low level sectarian identities with Alawis
  - Still provided for Sunni penetration
- Based on cold war patronage lines like nasser
- sectarian arithmatic
  - The regime thus exploited both supra‐state (Pan‐Arabism) state (Syrian civic nationalism), class, and sectarian identities to legitimize itself. - pg 150
Neoliberal years: 2000-2010
- Neolibral reforms reduced capacity for the state to dole out based on sectarian identities
- No more patronage lines